Clove Benefits, Traditional Uses, and Wellness Value

Clove, scientifically known as Syzygium aromaticum, is a spice with a long and storied history across cultures worldwide. It is native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia and comes from the dried, aromatic flower buds of a tree belonging to the Myrtaceae family. For centuries, cloves were among the most valued spices, sought after by ancient civilisations for their flavour, fragrance, and preservative qualities. Their rarity and versatility made them a cornerstone of the early global spice trade, positioning cloves as one of the first truly international commodities in human history.

Background and History

The history of Syzygium aromaticum is as layered and distinctive as its flavour. Cloves have been used for more than two thousand years, with early records pointing to their presence in ancient China and India, where they were valued not only as a spice but also for their traditional medicinal uses. In ancient China, cloves were commonly used to freshen the breath, and historical accounts suggest that courtiers were expected to carry them when speaking before the emperor.

By the eighth century, cloves had reached Europe, where they quickly became a luxury item reserved for the wealthy. Their high value made them a central focus of global trade. During the seventeenth century, the Netherlands placed immense importance on cloves, going to extreme measures to protect their dominance over the spice trade. This included the deliberate destruction of clove trees on islands outside their control in an effort to maintain a monopoly.

Beyond their culinary appeal, cloves played a significant role in shaping global history. Their demand influenced colonial expansion, trade routes, and economic change across regions. Over time, clove cultivation spread beyond its original home, leading to the establishment of plantations in new areas. By the nineteenth century, Zanzibar had emerged as the world’s leading producer of cloves, underscoring how this small aromatic bud helped drive major shifts in global agriculture and commerce.

Clove (Syzygium Aromaticum)

This article takes a closer look at the world of Syzygium aromaticum, exploring its long history, cultural importance, and the wide range of health-supporting properties associated with cloves. Traditionally valued in many healing systems, cloves are known for their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial qualities. They have been commonly used to ease everyday concerns such as tooth discomfort, digestive unease, and minor infections.

Modern scientific research continues to build on this traditional knowledge by examining the natural compounds found in cloves, particularly eugenol, which is largely responsible for their distinctive aroma and many of their biological effects. Together, historical use and contemporary findings highlight why cloves have remained a trusted and versatile spice in both culinary and wellness practices across generations.

Cultivation of Clove

Chemical Composition of Clove

General Health Benefits of Clove

Pain Relief

Antimicrobial Properties

Antioxidant Properties of Clove

Anti-inflammatory Effects

Digestive Health Benefits of Clove

Liver Protection

Antidiabetic Properties

Anticancer Potential of Clove

Immune System Support

Oral Health

Reproductive Health Benefits of Clove

Libido Enhancement

Antioxidant Effects on Reproductive Organs

Hormonal Balance

Boosts Testosterone

Potential Fertility Enhancement

Menstrual Pain Relief

Supplementation

Conclusion

Cultivation of Clove

Clove is cultivated in tropical regions where warm temperatures and high humidity create ideal growing conditions. The clove tree thrives in rich, loamy soil and depends on consistent rainfall to support healthy growth. Propagation is usually done through seeds or cuttings, and the plant requires patience, as it typically takes around six years before it begins to flower and produce harvestable buds.

Harvesting cloves is a careful and labour-intensive process. The aromatic flower buds are picked by hand while they are still pink and unopened, at a stage when their essential oil content is at its peak. After harvesting, the buds are dried slowly until they darken to a deep brown colour, developing the familiar aroma and flavour associated with cloves. This drying stage is crucial, as it directly affects the quality and potency of the final spice.

Clove cultivation plays an important economic role in several regions. Countries such as Indonesia, Madagascar, and Zanzibar rely heavily on clove production as a major agricultural export. The skill, time, and manual effort involved in growing and processing cloves contribute significantly to their value in global spice markets.

Climatic Conditions

Clove, an evergreen tropical tree, thrives under specific climatic conditions that support its slow growth, flowering, and high-quality bud production.

The ideal climate is warm, humid, and tropical, with consistent year-round temperatures typically ranging from 20–30°C (68–86°F), though optimal ranges in cultivation sources often fall between 21–32°C (70–90°F) or 16–27°C (65–80°F) depending on the reference. Trees require minimal fluctuations and cannot tolerate frost or prolonged exposure below 10–15°C (50–59°F), making them sensitive to cold stress.

Annual rainfall of 1500–2500 mm (or higher, up to 3000–4000 mm in premium spice-producing areas) is essential, distributed evenly throughout the year to maintain consistent soil moisture. A short dry season can promote flowering in some varieties, but prolonged drought severely reduces yield and tree health; supplemental irrigation is often needed during drier periods.

Clove trees prefer elevations from sea level up to about 300–900 meters (1000–3000 feet), though commercial production favors lowland humid island or coastal settings below 300 meters for best results. They require good sunlight exposure (full sun to partial shade, with young trees benefiting from light shade) and protection from strong winds.

Soil plays a critical role: rich, loamy, well-drained types with high organic matter are preferred, often sandy-loam in maritime forests. Soil pH should be slightly acidic to neutral, commonly cited as 5.5–7.0 (or as low as 4.5 in some tolerant habitats), avoiding waterlogged or compacted conditions that lead to root rot.

These conditions—warm, humid tropics with reliable heavy rainfall, stable temperatures, adequate sunlight, and fertile, well-drained soil—are characteristic of major producing regions like Indonesia (the world’s largest producer), Madagascar, Zanzibar (Tanzania), Sri Lanka, and parts of India. They align with clove’s native range and traditional cultivation, supporting its role as a premium spice while emphasizing the tree’s sensitivity to environmental stress.

Geography

Clove cultivation is concentrated in tropical regions worldwide, where the required warm, humid climate, consistent heavy rainfall (1500–2500 mm or more annually), stable temperatures (20–30°C or 68–86°F), and fertile, well-drained soils align with the tree’s needs.

Indonesia remains the world’s dominant producer, contributing approximately 70–73% of global output in recent years (e.g., around 133,000–146,000 metric tons annually based on 2022–2023 data from sources like FAO and Tridge). As the native habitat—particularly the Maluku Islands (historically the Spice Islands)—Indonesia benefits from volcanic soils and ideal tropical conditions, with major cultivation spread across islands including Sulawesi (over 40% of national production in some reports) and East Java. Much of the harvest supports domestic use, such as in kretek cigarettes, with only 10–15% typically exported.

Madagascar ranks as the second-largest producer (around 24,000–26,000 metric tons in recent data), often leading in exports due to high-quality buds and favorable east-coast tropical agroforestry systems. It accounts for a significant share of global trade, with consistent humid conditions supporting reliable yields.

Tanzania, particularly Zanzibar and Pemba Islands (historically once the top global producer), contributes notably (around 8,500–9,000 metric tons), with the humid coastal climate and long cultivation tradition making it a key African source.

Other important producers include Comoros (around 7,000 metric tons), Sri Lanka (5,000–11,000 metric tons, especially in central highlands), and smaller amounts from Kenya, China, Malaysia, India (primarily in southern states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu), and scattered tropical areas such as Brazil, Mauritius, Grenada, and parts of the Pacific Islands. These regions share similar equatorial or subtropical conditions that enable clove growth, though production volumes are much lower than the top leaders.

Overall, global clove production is highly concentrated in a few tropical island and coastal nations, with Indonesia’s scale far exceeding others. These locations provide the consistent moisture, warmth, and soil fertility essential for the slow-maturing tree’s flowering and bud development, supporting its role as a premium spice in culinary, medicinal, and industrial applications. Fluctuations occur due to weather, aging plantations, and market demand, but these core regions continue to dominate supply.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5, Source 6)

Chemical Composition of Clove

Cloves contain a complex array of chemical constituents, each contributing to its unique aroma, flavor, and medicinal properties. The primary constituents and their approximate content ratios, along with associated health benefits, are as follows:

Eugenol: This is the most abundant compound in clove oil, comprising 72-90% of the total composition. Eugenol is known for its potent anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, which make it effective in treating dental pain and various inflammatory conditions. It also has antiseptic and anesthetic qualities.
Eugenyl Acetate: Constituting about 15% of the oil, eugenyl acetate enhances the analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of eugenol. It also contributes to the antioxidant capacity of cloves.
β-Caryophyllene: Making up about 5-12% of clove oil, β-caryophyllene is a sesquiterpene that possesses anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. It has been studied for its potential in treating inflammatory bowel diseases and arthritic pain.
Methyl Salicylate: Present in smaller quantities (1-2%), this compound has properties similar to aspirin and is known for its pain-relieving effects.
Flavonoids: Cloves contain various flavonoids, including kaempferol and quercetin, which are present in trace amounts. These compounds are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, contributing to the overall health benefits of cloves, such as reducing oxidative stress and potentially lowering the risk of chronic diseases.
Tannins: Comprising a minor part of cloves, tannins have astringent properties and contribute to the anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial benefits of the spice.
Fiber, Vitamins, and Minerals: Cloves also contain dietary fiber, vitamins (such as vitamin C, folate), and minerals like potassium, calcium, and magnesium, though in lesser quantities. These components contribute to overall health by supporting digestive health, immune function, and bone health.
Other Compounds: Cloves contain various other compounds in trace amounts, including triterpenoids, sesquiterpenes, and monoterpenes, which contribute to its overall medicinal profile.

The chemical composition of cloves, especially the high content of eugenol, makes it a potent natural remedy with various applications. Its use in dental care as an analgesic and antiseptic is well-known. Additionally, the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of its compounds contribute to its potential in managing conditions like arthritis, diabetes, and certain cardiovascular diseases. However, it’s important to note that while cloves offer numerous health benefits, they should be used in moderation due to the potency of their active compounds.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5, Source 6, Source 7)

General Health Benefits of Clove

Cloves are far more than a familiar kitchen spice; they are a rich source of health-supporting properties that have been valued for centuries. Native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, this aromatic bud has long held an important place in traditional healing practices. Cloves are especially known for containing eugenol, a natural compound responsible for many of their distinctive therapeutic qualities.

Traditionally, clove has been used for its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial effects, making it a trusted remedy for concerns such as tooth discomfort and minor infections. Its role in supporting digestion and strengthening immune function further highlights its versatility as a wellness ingredient. From oral care to everyday digestive comfort, the benefits of clove extend across multiple aspects of health.

This article explores the many ways in which clove can support overall wellbeing, drawing from both traditional use and modern understanding. Together, these perspectives reveal why this small yet powerful spice continues to be valued as a meaningful part of holistic health practices.

Pain Relief

Clove, particularly its essential oil, provides pain relief primarily through eugenol, which comprises 70–90% of the oil and has been extensively studied for its analgesic properties.

Eugenol exerts antinociceptive effects via multiple mechanisms, including inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes—particularly COX-2—reducing prostaglandin synthesis, similar to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). It also modulates transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, such as TRPV1 and TRPA1, often acting as an agonist that initially activates but leads to desensitization of pain-sensing pathways, thereby reducing pain perception. Preclinical studies in animal models (e.g., formalin, acetic acid writhing, and hot plate tests) demonstrate dose-dependent pain reduction, with involvement of opioidergic, α2-adrenergic, and glutamatergic systems, as well as suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α.

In humans, eugenol’s analgesic efficacy is well-documented in dental applications, where clove oil or eugenol-based preparations alleviate toothache, pulpitis, and post-extraction pain (e.g., alveolar osteitis). Clinical trials and reviews show eugenol pastes or gels significantly reduce pain scores compared to controls or standard treatments like chlorhexidine, with benefits attributed to its local anti-inflammatory and mild anesthetic effects that numb sensations and inhibit inflammatory mediators.

Clove also contains supportive compounds like flavonoids (e.g., kaempferol, quercetin derivatives) and tannins, which contribute anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions, enhancing overall pain relief by mitigating oxidative stress and inflammation. These secondary phytochemicals align with clove’s traditional use but are less dominant than eugenol in most analgesic studies.

While effective as a natural remedy—especially for topical dental pain—clove oil must be used cautiously. High concentrations can cause irritation, mucosal burns, or hypersensitivity; always dilute (e.g., in carrier oil) for topical application and avoid ingestion of undiluted oil. Evidence is strongest for short-term, localized use in oral pain, with limited data for systemic or chronic conditions. Clove is not a substitute for professional medical care, particularly for severe pain; consult a healthcare provider before use, especially with allergies or concurrent medications.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4)

Antimicrobial Properties

Clove, particularly its essential oil, exhibits broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties primarily due to eugenol, which constitutes 70–90% of the oil, along with supportive compounds such as eugenyl acetate, β-caryophyllene, flavonoids, and tannins.

Eugenol disrupts microbial cell membranes by increasing permeability, causing leakage of intracellular contents, and interfering with metabolic processes. It inhibits key enzymes (e.g., those involved in ergosterol biosynthesis in fungi and ATP production in bacteria) and binds to proteins, leading to structural damage and cell death. These mechanisms are supported by in vitro studies showing eugenol’s efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including multidrug-resistant strains such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella species.

Clove oil and eugenol demonstrate strong antifungal activity, particularly against Candida albicans and other Candida species, by damaging fungal cell membranes, inhibiting ergosterol synthesis, and reducing biofilm formation. Multiple laboratory studies confirm dose-dependent inhibition of fungal growth and spore germination, with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) often comparable to or lower than some conventional antifungals in susceptible strains.

In human clinical contexts, clove oil is most established for oral health applications. Randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews show that clove-based mouthwashes or gels significantly reduce oral bacterial load, plaque index, gingival inflammation, and halitosis compared to placebo or chlorhexidine in some studies—effects attributed to eugenol’s antibacterial and anti-biofilm properties against oral pathogens like Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, and Fusobacterium nucleatum. For example, short-term use of clove oil rinse has been linked to reduced dental plaque and gingivitis scores, supporting its traditional role in promoting oral hygiene.

While preclinical and in vitro data highlight clove’s potential against a wide range of pathogens, including antibiotic-resistant bacteria, human clinical evidence for systemic or topical treatment of broader infections remains limited and preliminary. Clove oil is not a substitute for conventional antimicrobials in serious infections, and high concentrations can cause mucosal irritation or allergic reactions. Diluted topical or oral use (e.g., in dental products) appears safe and effective for supportive antimicrobial benefits, particularly in oral care, though larger-scale trials are needed to confirm efficacy against resistant pathogens or systemic infections. Regular inclusion of cloves in the diet or as a diluted rinse may offer complementary support for microbial balance, especially in oral health.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5, Source 6, Source 7, Source 8, Source 9, Source 10)

Antioxidant Properties of Clove

Clove possesses a high antioxidant capacity, primarily driven by its rich phenolic content, with eugenol (typically 70–90% of clove essential oil) as the dominant compound, alongside other phenolics such as eugenyl acetate, gallic acid, and flavonoids (e.g., quercetin and kaempferol derivatives), as well as tannins.

These compounds act as potent free radical scavengers, donating electrons or hydrogen atoms to neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide, hydroxyl radicals, and peroxyl radicals, thereby preventing lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and DNA damage. In vitro assays, including DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and ORAC, consistently rank clove among the highest-antioxidant spices, often surpassing many common fruits and vegetables due to its concentrated phenolic profile.

Beyond direct scavenging, clove extracts and eugenol upregulate endogenous antioxidant defense systems in preclinical models. Studies in cell lines and animal models demonstrate increased activity and expression of enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), as well as elevated levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), enhancing the body’s ability to counteract oxidative stress more sustainably.

Human clinical evidence, while more limited, supports these effects. Randomized controlled trials have shown that clove supplementation (e.g., clove powder or extract at 500–3000 mg daily for 4–12 weeks) significantly improves antioxidant biomarkers in specific populations. For example, in patients with type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome, clove intake reduced markers of oxidative stress (e.g., malondialdehyde) and increased total antioxidant capacity (TAC) or SOD activity compared to placebo. Similar benefits appear in trials involving non-alcoholic fatty liver disease or post-exercise recovery, where clove reduced lipid peroxidation and boosted enzymatic defenses.

These dual mechanisms—direct radical neutralization and enzyme induction—help mitigate oxidative stress implicated in chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease (e.g., endothelial protection), certain cancers (e.g., reduced DNA damage in preclinical models), and neurodegenerative disorders (e.g., neuroprotection via ROS quenching in animal studies of Alzheimer’s models).

Overall, clove’s robust antioxidant profile aligns with its traditional use in wellness practices and positions it as a promising dietary contributor to reducing oxidative damage. While preclinical and mechanistic data are strong, human trials remain smaller-scale and condition-specific; larger studies are needed to confirm broad therapeutic impacts. Regular inclusion of cloves (e.g., in tea, cooking, or standardized extracts) may offer supportive antioxidant benefits as part of a balanced diet rich in plant phenolics, though it is not a standalone treatment for disease prevention.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5)

Anti-inflammatory Effects

Clove, particularly its essential oil, exhibits notable anti-inflammatory properties, primarily attributed to eugenol (70–90% of the oil), along with supportive compounds like flavonoids (e.g., quercetin derivatives), tannins, and β-caryophyllene.

Eugenol and related phenolics inhibit key inflammatory pathways, including cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity, which reduces prostaglandin synthesis—similar to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Preclinical studies in cell lines (e.g., RAW264.7 macrophages) and animal models demonstrate eugenol’s suppression of COX-2 expression, along with reduced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and MCP-1, often via inhibition of NF-κB signaling and MAPK pathways. These mechanisms lead to decreased swelling, redness, and pain in models of acute and chronic inflammation, including lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury and arthritis-like conditions.

Human clinical evidence is more limited but supportive in specific contexts. A randomized, double-blinded, active-controlled trial in adults with metabolic syndrome found that a polyphenol-rich clove bud extract (Clovinol, 250 mg/day for 84 days) significantly reduced inflammatory markers like IL-1β and TNF-α, alongside improvements in redox homeostasis and glucose metabolism, with no notable adverse effects. Other small human studies, including those on clove oil gargles for postoperative sore throat, show reduced inflammation and pain, while dermal fibroblast experiments confirm clove oil’s downregulation of pro-inflammatory biomarkers (e.g., VCAM-1, IP-10) and tissue remodeling factors.

In conditions like arthritis or other inflammatory disorders, preclinical data suggest potential benefits through cytokine suppression and COX-2 inhibition, but direct large-scale human trials for systemic use (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis) remain scarce, with most evidence from animal models or in vitro work. Clove’s anti-inflammatory effects position it as a promising natural adjunct for managing inflammation-related issues, particularly when incorporated into the diet or as diluted topical/oil preparations, though it is not a replacement for conventional therapies. Larger randomized controlled trials are needed to fully establish efficacy and dosing for specific inflammatory conditions.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5, Source 6)

Digestive Health Benefits of Clove

Clove, particularly through its essential oil rich in eugenol (70–90%), has long been recognized in traditional medicine for supporting digestive health, including as a carminative to relieve indigestion, bloating, and gas.

Eugenol and other clove compounds stimulate digestive enzyme secretion (e.g., amylase, lipase, and proteases) in preclinical models, potentially enhancing breakdown and absorption of nutrients while reducing post-meal discomfort. Traditional uses and some animal studies align with clove’s role in relaxing gastrointestinal smooth muscles, aiding in gas expulsion and easing spasms—mechanisms similar to other carminative spices.

Clove’s antimicrobial properties, driven by eugenol, help inhibit pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Helicobacter pylori in vitro) and fungi like Candida species, which may support gut microbial balance. Animal studies (e.g., in high-fat diet or Candida-infected mice) show clove essential oil or eugenol modulates microbiota composition—reducing harmful phyla like Proteobacteria while increasing beneficial ones—and lowers inflammation markers (e.g., IL-6, TNF-α) in the gut, potentially protecting against dysbiosis-related issues.

Anti-inflammatory effects further benefit the gastrointestinal tract; eugenol inhibits COX-2 and NF-κB pathways, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators in preclinical models of colitis or infection. This may help mitigate conditions involving gut inflammation, such as gastritis or inflammatory bowel issues, though direct human evidence remains preliminary.

Cloves contain modest dietary fiber (about 0.8–1 g per teaspoon or 2 g serving), which supports bowel regularity and feeds beneficial gut bacteria when consumed regularly in food amounts—contributing to overall motility and digestive wellness.

While preclinical and mechanistic data are promising, human clinical trials specifically on clove for digestive health are limited and often indirect (e.g., from metabolic or anti-inflammatory studies). Benefits are most supported for traditional adjunctive use in mild indigestion or as part of a balanced diet. Clove is not a substitute for medical treatment in serious digestive disorders; larger human RCTs are needed to confirm efficacy and optimal dosing. Regular inclusion (e.g., in teas, cooking, or small amounts of ground cloves) may offer supportive digestive benefits with low risk when used moderately.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3)

Liver Protection

Clove, particularly its essential oil rich in eugenol (70–90%), demonstrates hepatoprotective properties in preclinical models, largely through its potent antioxidant capacity from eugenol and other phenolics (e.g., gallic acid, flavonoids like quercetin derivatives).

These antioxidants neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress—a major contributor to liver damage—by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS), inhibiting lipid peroxidation (e.g., lowering malondialdehyde levels), and upregulating endogenous antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). In animal models of hepatotoxicity (e.g., induced by thioacetamide, carbon tetrachloride [CCl₄], arsenic, cadmium, high-fructose diets, or hypercholesterolemia), clove extracts or eugenol significantly attenuate liver injury by restoring these enzyme activities, reducing oxidative markers, and preserving cellular integrity.

Clove also modulates liver function enzymes. Multiple rat studies show dose-dependent reductions in elevated serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels following toxin exposure; for instance, hydroalcoholic clove extracts (50–300 mg/kg) over 21 days significantly lowered these biomarkers and improved total protein/albumin compared to toxin controls. Eugenol (e.g., 5–10 mg/kg) similarly decreases ALT/AST in models of fatty liver, fibrosis, or metabolic syndrome, while preventing steatosis, inflammation, and hepatomegaly.

Anti-inflammatory effects further support liver protection; eugenol and clove compounds inhibit pro-inflammatory pathways (e.g., NF-κB, COX-2) and reduce cytokines like TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in hepatic tissue, mitigating inflammation common in liver disorders such as steatohepatitis or fibrosis.

While preclinical (animal and in vitro) evidence is consistent and robust—aligning with traditional uses for liver support—human clinical trials specifically evaluating clove or eugenol for hepatoprotection remain limited and indirect (e.g., some metabolic syndrome studies show improved redox status and reduced inflammation, but not primary liver outcomes). High doses of eugenol can paradoxically cause liver damage in animal models (e.g., >20 mg/kg leading to structural/functional impairment), and rare human overdose cases report severe hepatotoxicity.

Overall, clove shows promise as a natural adjunct for supporting liver health against oxidative and inflammatory insults, particularly through dietary inclusion (e.g., in teas or cooking) or standardized extracts at moderate doses. It is not a substitute for medical treatment in liver conditions; consult a healthcare provider before using supplements, especially with existing liver issues or medications, as larger human RCTs are needed to confirm efficacy and safety.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5, Source 6)

Antidiabetic Properties

Clove, particularly through its major bioactive compound eugenol (70–90% of essential oil) and polyphenolic extracts, shows promising antidiabetic properties in preclinical and limited human studies, primarily by supporting glucose metabolism and insulin function.

Preclinical research, including animal models of hyperglycemia (e.g., streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats), demonstrates that clove extracts or eugenol significantly lower fasting blood glucose, improve insulin sensitivity (e.g., reducing HOMA-IR), enhance glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from pancreatic islets, and mitigate insulin resistance—often comparable to or synergistic with standard treatments. Mechanisms include inhibition of carbohydrate-digesting enzymes like α-amylase and α-glucosidase (delaying postprandial glucose absorption), enhanced glucose uptake in skeletal muscle cells, reduced hepatic glucose production, and modulation of pathways like insulin signaling in myocytes. Meta-analyses of rodent studies confirm eugenol’s consistent effects on lowering glucose, improving lipid profiles, and reducing oxidative/hepatic damage.

Human clinical evidence is more preliminary but supportive. An open-label pilot study with a water-soluble polyphenol-rich clove extract (PCE) in healthy and prediabetic volunteers found significant reductions in postprandial glucose (e.g., 13–17 mg/dL decreases by day 12–30) and preprandial glucose in prediabetics, alongside in vitro inhibition of α-amylase/α-glucosidase and enhanced glucose uptake in muscle cells. A randomized, double-blinded trial in adults with metabolic syndrome using a polyphenol-rich clove bud extract (Clovinol, 250 mg/day for 12 weeks) improved fasting/postprandial glucose, HbA1c, insulin levels, and HOMA-IR, indicating better insulin sensitivity and reduced resistance. Older reports of clove supplementation in type 2 diabetes patients noted glucose and lipid improvements, though larger-scale RCTs are limited.

Clove’s antioxidant properties further aid diabetes management by combating oxidative stress—a contributor to β-cell dysfunction, insulin resistance, and complications—through free radical scavenging and upregulation of enzymes like SOD, CAT, and GPx, as seen in animal and some human metabolic studies.

Overall, these multifaceted actions—enzyme inhibition for post-meal glucose control, insulin sensitization/secretion support, and oxidative stress reduction—position clove as a potential dietary adjunct for blood sugar regulation and diabetes support, aligning with traditional uses. Evidence is strongest in preclinical models and small human trials (e.g., prediabetes or metabolic syndrome); larger, long-term RCTs are needed to confirm efficacy, optimal dosing (e.g., extracts equivalent to 1–2 g cloves daily), and safety in diabetes management. Clove should complement—not replace—prescribed therapies (e.g., metformin, lifestyle changes); consult a healthcare provider before adding supplements, especially with medications, to avoid interactions or hypoglycemia risk. Regular moderate inclusion in the diet (e.g., ground cloves in teas/foods) may offer supportive benefits with low risk.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5, Source 6)

Anticancer Potential of Clove

Clove, particularly its essential oil rich in eugenol (70–90%), along with other bioactive compounds like β-caryophyllene, flavonoids, and tannins, has demonstrated promising anticancer potential in preclinical research across various cancer types, including breast, cervical, lung, prostate, colorectal, gastric, skin (melanoma), leukemia, and others.

Eugenol and clove extracts induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cancer cells through multiple pathways. These include activation of the mitochondrial intrinsic pathway (modulating Bcl-2 family proteins, releasing cytochrome c, and activating caspases like caspase-3 and -9), upregulation of pro-apoptotic factors (e.g., Bax, p53), and downregulation of anti-apoptotic proteins (e.g., Bcl-2, survivin). In vitro studies on cell lines (e.g., HeLa cervical, MCF-7 breast, HCT-116 colorectal, A549 lung) show dose- and time-dependent cytotoxicity, often with cell cycle arrest (e.g., at G0/G1 or G2/M phases) via modulation of cyclins, CDKs, and p21/p27. Preclinical animal models (e.g., xenograft tumors, chemically induced carcinogenesis like MNNG in rats for gastric cancer) further confirm reduced tumor growth, proliferation, and metastasis, with eugenol or clove extracts inhibiting invasion (via MMP-2/9 downregulation) and metastasis.

Antioxidant mechanisms contribute significantly: eugenol and phenolics scavenge free radicals, prevent oxidative DNA damage, and reduce ROS-mediated carcinogenesis. This protects against mutations that initiate or promote cancer, as seen in models where clove reduces lipid peroxidation and enhances endogenous antioxidants (e.g., SOD, CAT, GPx).

Clove compounds also inhibit angiogenesis—the formation of new blood vessels that nourish tumors—by suppressing VEGF expression, VEGFR signaling, and related pathways, limiting tumor nutrient supply and metastasis in preclinical studies.

While these multitargeted effects (apoptosis induction, cell cycle arrest, anti-angiogenesis, antioxidant protection, and anti-metastatic actions) are well-supported in vitro and in vivo (animal) research, human clinical evidence remains very limited. No large-scale randomized controlled trials have definitively established clove or eugenol as a standalone anticancer agent or preventive therapy. Some small studies or adjunctive explorations (e.g., in oral/dental contexts or metabolic conditions) hint at supportive roles, but direct antitumor outcomes in humans are preliminary or absent. Sources like systematic reviews emphasize the need for further clinical investigation, including standardized formulations (e.g., nanoemulsions for better bioavailability) and early-phase trials to assess efficacy, safety, and dosing.

Overall, clove’s phytochemical profile offers mechanistic promise as a natural adjunct for cancer prevention or supportive therapy—aligning with traditional uses—but it is not a proven treatment or replacement for conventional therapies (e.g., chemotherapy, surgery, radiation). Regular dietary inclusion (e.g., in teas, cooking, or small amounts of ground cloves) may provide general antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits as part of a balanced diet, but high-dose supplements require caution due to potential toxicity at excessive levels. Consult a healthcare provider before using clove-derived products for cancer-related purposes, and more robust human trials are essential to translate preclinical findings into clinical applications.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5)

Immune System Support

Clove, rich in bioactive compounds like eugenol (70–90% of essential oil), along with flavonoids, tannins, and β-caryophyllene, supports immune function through its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory properties, as evidenced by preclinical and limited human studies.

Clove’s potent antioxidants, primarily eugenol and phenolics, neutralize free radicals and reduce oxidative stress, which can otherwise impair immune cell function and integrity. In vitro and animal models show clove extracts upregulate endogenous antioxidant enzymes (e.g., superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase) and enhance total antioxidant capacity, protecting leukocytes and other immune cells from ROS-mediated damage. This aligns with broader metabolic and anti-inflammatory trials where clove supplementation improved redox homeostasis.

The antimicrobial effects of eugenol and clove oil provide direct pathogen defense, inhibiting bacteria (including multidrug-resistant strains like MRSA), fungi (e.g., Candida), and some viruses through membrane disruption, enzyme inhibition, and biofilm suppression. In vitro studies confirm broad-spectrum activity, potentially reducing infection burden on the immune system and supporting oral/gut microbial balance—though human trials focus more on topical/oral applications (e.g., reduced plaque/gingivitis) rather than systemic immunity.

Clove exhibits immunomodulatory effects on immune cells. In vitro studies on murine splenocytes and macrophages show clove extracts (including eugenol) suppress excessive T-cell proliferation (e.g., PHA-stimulated), enhance B-cell expansion (LPS-stimulated), and shift cytokine profiles toward Th2/modulatory responses—reducing pro-inflammatory IFN-γ while increasing IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β. Animal models (e.g., Salmonella-infected mice) demonstrate increased lymphocyte proliferation, lymphoblast formation, macrophage ROI secretion, and total white blood cell counts with clove leaf extracts. Some studies indicate stimulation of humoral and cellular responses in immunosuppressed models, though effects vary by dose and activation state (suppressive at higher doses in stimulated cells).

Human clinical evidence remains preliminary and indirect, with no large RCTs directly confirming broad immune boosting (e.g., increased white blood cell activity or phagocytosis in healthy individuals). Benefits appear more consistent in metabolic/inflammatory contexts (e.g., reduced cytokines like TNF-α/IL-6 in metabolic syndrome trials) or as adjuncts in infection-prone settings, but robust data for general immune enhancement or infection prevention are limited.

Overall, clove’s multifaceted profile—antioxidant protection, pathogen inhibition, and balanced immunomodulation—positions it as a supportive dietary addition for immune resilience, aligning with traditional uses. Regular moderate inclusion (e.g., in teas, cooking, or standardized extracts) may offer benefits as part of a balanced diet, though it is not a substitute for medical interventions. Larger human trials are needed to substantiate direct immune-stimulating claims, especially for white blood cell activity or infection resistance. Consult a healthcare provider before using supplements, particularly with medications or conditions.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4)

Oral Health

Clove, particularly its essential oil rich in eugenol (70–90%), has a well-established role in supporting oral health, backed by clinical studies and traditional dental applications.

Eugenol and clove oil exhibit strong antimicrobial activity against key oral pathogens. In vitro and clinical research demonstrate significant inhibition of bacteria associated with tooth decay (e.g., Streptococcus mutans), periodontal disease (e.g., Porphyromonas gingivalis, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Fusobacterium nucleatum), and oral infections. Randomized controlled trials show that clove oil mouthwashes or gels reduce bacterial colony counts, plaque index, and gingival bleeding scores comparably to chlorhexidine in some short-term studies (e.g., 7–21 days), with reductions in plaque accumulation and gingival inflammation observed in participants with gingivitis. These effects stem from eugenol’s ability to disrupt microbial cell membranes, inhibit biofilm formation, and suppress enzyme activity essential for bacterial survival and adhesion.

The anti-inflammatory properties of eugenol further benefit gum health by reducing swelling, redness, and cytokine-mediated inflammation in gingival tissues. Clinical trials in patients with gingivitis or periodontitis report decreased gingival index scores and pro-inflammatory markers (e.g., IL-1β, TNF-α) with clove-based preparations, supporting its role in alleviating symptoms of early-stage gum disease.

Eugenol’s well-documented analgesic and mild anesthetic effects provide effective pain relief for toothaches, sore gums, and post-dental procedure discomfort. Multiple randomized trials confirm that eugenol-containing pastes, gels, or temporary fillings (e.g., zinc oxide-eugenol) significantly reduce pain scores in cases of pulpitis, dry socket (alveolar osteitis), and acute dental pain, often outperforming placebo and rivaling standard analgesics for localized relief. This has led to its inclusion in over-the-counter dental products and traditional remedies.

Clove also helps combat halitosis (bad breath) through its antibacterial action against volatile sulfur compound-producing bacteria and its strong, masking aromatic profile. Short-term clinical studies with clove mouth rinses show reductions in oral malodor compared to baseline or placebo.

Overall, these combined antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and aromatic properties make clove a valuable natural adjunct for oral hygiene and symptom management, particularly for mild to moderate issues like plaque buildup, gingivitis, toothache, and bad breath. Evidence is strongest for topical/oral use in short-term applications (e.g., diluted oil, mouthwashes, or gels). While clove oil is generally safe in low concentrations, undiluted or excessive use can cause mucosal irritation, allergic reactions, or temporary numbness; always dilute properly (e.g., 1–2 drops in carrier oil or water for rinses) and avoid prolonged ingestion. Clove is not a substitute for professional dental care or fluoride-based prevention; consult a dentist for persistent issues, and larger long-term trials would further clarify its role in comprehensive oral health maintenance. Regular, moderate use (e.g., in teas, chewing whole cloves sparingly, or standardized products) aligns with both traditional practices and scientific support for oral wellness.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5, Source 6, Source 7)

In essence, clove goes far beyond its role as a flavouring spice and stands out as a concentrated source of health-supporting compounds. Its composition, largely shaped by eugenol, underlies its well-known analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Traditionally and in emerging research, cloves have been linked with oral care, pain relief, digestive support, and potential benefits for blood sugar balance and liver health.

At the same time, cloves are highly potent, and mindful use is essential. Excessive intake or improper use may lead to unwanted effects, highlighting the importance of moderation. When incorporated sensibly into a balanced diet, cloves can serve as a valuable natural addition to everyday wellness, offering holistic benefits rooted in both traditional wisdom and modern understanding.

Reproductive Health Benefits of Clove

Cloves may also offer supportive benefits for reproductive health, an aspect of this versatile spice that is less widely discussed. Traditionally valued for their aromatic and medicinal qualities, cloves have recently drawn attention for their potential role in reproductive wellbeing. The natural compounds found in cloves, particularly eugenol, are thought to influence circulation, oxidative balance, and hormonal activity, all of which are relevant to reproductive function.

Early research and traditional observations suggest that cloves may help support libido, contribute to hormonal balance, and play a role in maintaining menstrual comfort and regularity. There is also emerging interest in their potential influence on fertility-related factors, although this area of study is still developing and requires further scientific validation.

Libido Enhancement

Clove, traditionally regarded as an aphrodisiac in systems like Ayurveda and Unani medicine, shows preliminary evidence of supporting libido and sexual function, primarily from animal studies, though human clinical data remain limited and inconclusive.

Animal research consistently indicates aphrodisiac-like effects. Multiple studies in normal male rats administered 50% ethanolic clove extract (e.g., 100–500 mg/kg orally) report significant increases in mounting frequency, intromission frequency, erections, and penile reflexes, alongside reductions in mounting latency, post-ejaculatory interval, and overall enhanced sexual behavior and potency—effects sustained without notable adverse impacts like gastric ulceration. Similar findings appear in mice and other rodent models, with clove leaf ethanol extracts or fractions (e.g., n-hexane, ethyl acetate) reducing mounting latency, increasing mounting/intromission frequency, delaying ejaculation, and boosting arousal/endurance, often comparable to positive controls.

Mechanisms may involve improved blood circulation via eugenol’s vasodilatory effects (e.g., relaxing blood vessels and enhancing pelvic/peripheral flow, critical for arousal and erectile response). A study in diabetic rats found intracavernosal administration of clove essential oil or eugenol restored erectile function, with relaxation of corpus cavernosum tissue mediated partly through K+ channels (independent of nitric oxide pathways in some assays). Eugenol may also reduce fatigue and support energy levels indirectly through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions.

Clove’s stress-relieving properties—via modulation of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress—could indirectly aid sexual desire by alleviating anxiety, a common libido suppressant, though this link is more inferred from general wellness studies.

Some animal models suggest biphasic effects on testosterone: low doses (e.g., 15 mg/kg clove extract in mice) increase testosterone synthesis via enhanced steroidogenic enzyme activity (3β-HSD, 17β-HSD), while higher doses reduce it and impair sperm parameters or fertility—highlighting the importance of moderate dosing.

Human evidence is sparse, with no large-scale randomized controlled trials directly assessing clove for libido, sexual desire, arousal, or performance in healthy or clinical populations. Benefits remain largely extrapolated from animal data and traditional use, with indirect support from eugenol’s vascular and antioxidant roles in related contexts (e.g., erectile function in metabolic models).

While promising for potential supportive use in sexual wellness—particularly through improved circulation, reduced stress, and traditional aphrodisiac reputation—clove’s role requires further rigorous human research to validate mechanisms, efficacy, and safe dosing. Moderate dietary inclusion (e.g., ground cloves in teas, foods, or small amounts) may offer low-risk benefits as part of a balanced lifestyle, but high-dose supplements warrant caution due to possible dose-dependent adverse effects. Clove is not a proven treatment for sexual dysfunction; consult a healthcare provider for concerns related to libido or performance, especially with underlying conditions or medications.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3)

Antioxidant Effects on Reproductive Organs

Clove, rich in eugenol (70–90% of its essential oil) and other phenolics (e.g., gallic acid, flavonoids), offers strong antioxidant effects that may help protect reproductive organs from oxidative stress—a major contributor to cellular damage in gametes, gonads, and associated tissues.

Oxidative stress, driven by excess reactive oxygen species (ROS), impairs reproductive health by causing lipid peroxidation in sperm membranes, DNA fragmentation in gametes, reduced motility/viability in sperm, follicular atresia in ovaries, hormonal disruptions, and complications like reduced fertility or pregnancy issues. Preclinical studies demonstrate clove’s antioxidants neutralize ROS, reduce lipid peroxidation markers (e.g., malondialdehyde), and enhance endogenous defenses like superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx).

In male reproductive models, clove bud extract or eugenol shows protective effects during oxidative challenges. For instance, in ram sperm cryopreservation studies, adding clove extract (35–75 μg/ml) to extenders improved post-thaw sperm motility, progressive movement, viability, and plasma membrane integrity compared to controls or vitamin E, attributed to higher antioxidant activity reducing freeze-thaw-induced oxidative damage. Animal models of testicular toxicity (e.g., torsion/detorsion, toxin exposure) indicate clove isolates (including eugenol) mitigate redox imbalance, preserve sperm parameters (count, motility, morphology), and support testicular histology by lowering oxidative stress markers.

For female reproductive health, limited but emerging animal data suggest benefits. In aged female mice, a combination including clove extract improved fertility outcomes (e.g., larger litter sizes), partly via reduced oxidative stress and better ovarian function. In PCOS-model rats, low-dose clove oil alleviated oxidative stress, improved histological parameters, and modulated autophagy/apoptosis in ovaries. Eugenol has shown protective effects in oocyte maturation models (e.g., porcine in vitro), lowering oxidative stress during processes critical for egg quality.

Clove’s anti-inflammatory properties complement these antioxidant actions by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6) and pathways like NF-κB, potentially reducing chronic inflammation in reproductive tissues that exacerbates oxidative damage and contributes to conditions like endometriosis or PCOS-related infertility.

While preclinical (animal and in vitro) evidence supports clove’s role in safeguarding reproductive cells from oxidative damage, improving gamete quality, and potentially enhancing fertility outcomes, direct human clinical trials remain scarce and indirect (e.g., no large RCTs focused on fertility parameters or reproductive organ protection). Benefits are most evident in models of induced stress or cryopreservation rather than baseline healthy states.

Overall, clove’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory profile positions it as a promising dietary adjunct for supporting reproductive health against oxidative threats, aligning with traditional uses. Regular moderate inclusion (e.g., ground cloves in teas, foods, or small amounts) may offer low-risk supportive benefits as part of an antioxidant-rich diet, but it is not a proven treatment for infertility or reproductive disorders. Larger human studies are needed to confirm efficacy, optimal dosing, and safety in fertility contexts. Consult a healthcare provider or fertility specialist before using clove supplements for reproductive concerns, especially with existing conditions or medications.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5)

Hormonal Balance

Clove, particularly its key compound eugenol and other phenolics, shows emerging potential in supporting aspects of hormonal balance, though mechanisms are multifaceted and evidence is primarily from preclinical models with limited human data.

In polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)—a common endocrine disorder marked by androgen excess, insulin resistance, and ovulatory dysfunction—clove supplementation has demonstrated benefits in small human and animal studies. Randomized trials and reviews indicate that clove extracts or oil significantly lower elevated testosterone and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels, increase sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) to bind excess androgens, and improve insulin resistance and lipid profiles. For example, in women with PCOS or overweight/obese individuals, clove reduced androgen excess and metabolic disturbances, aligning with its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects that mitigate oxidative stress contributing to hormonal dysregulation.

Regarding thyroid function, animal studies (e.g., in propylthiouracil-induced hypothyroidism or streptozotocin-diabetic rats) show clove oil or extracts increase thyroid hormones (T3, T4) and TSH in some contexts, potentially enhancing thyroid activity and metabolic balance. However, direct human clinical trials on clove for thyroid regulation are scarce, with most evidence indirect from metabolic or diabetic models where clove improved related parameters like glucose control and oxidative status.

Clove’s antioxidant properties—via eugenol scavenging free radicals and boosting enzymes like SOD, CAT, and GPx—help mitigate oxidative stress, which disrupts endocrine glands and hormone signaling. Its anti-inflammatory actions (e.g., suppressing NF-κB and cytokines like TNF-α, IL-6) may further protect hormone-producing tissues from chronic inflammation that exacerbates imbalances.

Preclinical data also suggest eugenol influences reproductive hormones (e.g., modulating estrogen/progesterone in female rat models or testosterone in males), but effects can be dose-dependent—higher doses sometimes reduce testosterone or alter fertility parameters—highlighting the need for moderation.

Overall, while clove’s bioactive profile offers plausible support for hormonal stability—particularly in PCOS-related imbalances through androgen reduction, insulin sensitization, and stress mitigation—human evidence remains preliminary, often from small trials or animal models. No large-scale RCTs confirm broad endocrine regulation (e.g., for menopause, general thyroid issues, or cortisol balance). Clove is not a proven hormonal therapy; regular moderate dietary use (e.g., in teas, cooking, or small amounts of ground cloves) may provide supportive antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits as part of a balanced diet. Consult a healthcare provider before using clove supplements for hormonal concerns, especially with conditions like PCOS, thyroid disorders, or medications, as effects vary by dose, form, and individual factors. Larger, targeted human studies are needed to substantiate and clarify its role in hormonal health.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5)

Boosts Testosterone

Clove has limited direct scientific evidence supporting a significant increase in testosterone levels in humans, with most claims stemming from preclinical (animal and in vitro) studies rather than robust clinical trials.

In animal models, particularly rodents, low to moderate doses of clove extracts or isolated eugenol have occasionally shown increases in serum testosterone. For example, in some rat studies involving induced testicular damage or metabolic stress, clove supplementation (e.g., 15–100 mg/kg ethanolic extract) elevated testosterone by enhancing steroidogenic enzyme activity (such as 3β-HSD and 17β-HSD) in Leydig cells and improving testicular antioxidant status. These effects are often linked to reduced oxidative stress, which can impair Leydig cell function and testosterone biosynthesis when unchecked. Eugenol and other phenolics in clove help neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS), preserve mitochondrial integrity in testicular tissue, and mitigate lipid peroxidation—mechanisms that indirectly support endocrine health.

However, results are inconsistent across studies: higher doses of clove or eugenol in some animal models have been associated with reduced testosterone, impaired sperm parameters, or even testicular toxicity, indicating a potential biphasic or dose-dependent response. Human clinical evidence is sparse and indirect. No large-scale, placebo-controlled randomized trials have specifically measured testosterone changes in response to clove supplementation in healthy men, hypogonadal individuals, or those with low-normal levels. Limited human data from metabolic or PCOS-related studies show improvements in insulin sensitivity, inflammation, and androgen profiles (e.g., reduced free testosterone in women with PCOS), but these do not extend to confirmed testosterone elevation in men.

Clove’s broader antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic benefits—such as lowering oxidative markers (e.g., malondialdehyde), reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6), and supporting glucose/lipid balance—may create a more favorable physiological environment for natural testosterone production by alleviating factors like chronic stress, insulin resistance, or inflammation that suppress the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. These indirect effects align with traditional uses of clove for vitality and reproductive wellness.

As of current research (up to 2025–2026), any assertion that cloves reliably or significantly boost testosterone in humans lacks strong substantiation and should be approached cautiously. Moderate dietary inclusion of cloves (e.g., ground spice in teas, cooking, or small amounts daily) may contribute to overall antioxidant and anti-inflammatory support with minimal risk, but it is not a proven testosterone enhancer or replacement for medical evaluation/treatment of low testosterone. Individuals concerned about hormone levels should consult a healthcare provider for appropriate testing and evidence-based interventions rather than relying on clove or other spices alone. Further targeted human studies are needed to clarify any direct or meaningful relationship.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3)

Potential Fertility Enhancement

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) is traditionally regarded as a supportive herb for reproductive health and fertility in various systems of medicine, with emerging preclinical evidence suggesting potential benefits primarily through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hormone-modulating properties—though human data remain limited and inconclusive.

The main bioactive compound, eugenol, along with other phenolics (e.g., flavonoids, β-caryophyllene), exerts strong antioxidant effects that combat oxidative stress—a key factor impairing fertility. Oxidative stress damages sperm membranes (reducing motility and viability), causes DNA fragmentation in gametes, disrupts ovarian function (e.g., follicular atresia, poor egg quality), and contributes to hormonal imbalances. In animal models, clove extracts or eugenol reduce lipid peroxidation markers (e.g., malondialdehyde), enhance endogenous antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx), and protect reproductive tissues from toxin- or stress-induced damage. For male fertility, studies in rams (semen cryopreservation) and rats (torsion/detorsion, manganese toxicity) show improved post-thaw sperm motility, viability, morphology, and count with moderate clove bud extract doses (e.g., 35–75 μg/ml in extenders or low oral doses), often outperforming or matching vitamin E in antioxidant protection. In female models (e.g., PCOS-like rats or aged mice), clove or eugenol lowers oxidative stress, improves ovarian histology, reduces autophagy/apoptosis, and supports better fertility outcomes (e.g., larger litters in combination formulas).

Anti-inflammatory actions further aid reproductive health by suppressing pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6) and pathways like NF-κB, potentially reducing chronic inflammation in gonads or pelvic tissues that hinders fertility (e.g., in endometriosis or PCOS models).

Hormone-regulating effects appear context-specific and dose-dependent. In PCOS animal models, low-dose clove reduces elevated LH/FSH ratios, testosterone, and androgen excess while improving insulin sensitivity—key for ovulatory function. In males, some rodent studies report low-dose clove extracts increasing testosterone via enhanced steroidogenic enzymes (3β-HSD, 17β-HSD) and better sperm parameters, but higher doses often suppress testosterone, impair sperm quality, or cause biphasic/toxic effects—highlighting caution with dosing.

Human evidence is sparse, with no large randomized controlled trials directly confirming fertility enhancement in men or women. Small studies or indirect data (e.g., PCOS-related hormone improvements, metabolic benefits) suggest supportive roles, but no robust outcomes on conception rates, sperm quality in infertile men, or ovulation in women. A comprehensive review (up to 2021) notes contradictory effects on reproductive parameters depending on extract type, dose, duration, and underlying condition, concluding clove warrants further investigation as a candidate for related disorders but lacks definitive mechanisms or broad applicability.

While promising in animal models for protecting gamete quality, reducing oxidative/inflammatory stress, and modulating hormones in specific contexts, clove is not a proven fertility enhancer. Evidence remains emerging and preclinical-dominant; moderate dietary use (e.g., ground cloves in teas, cooking, or small amounts daily) may offer general antioxidant/anti-inflammatory support as part of a balanced diet with low risk. High-dose supplements require caution due to potential adverse effects (e.g., dose-dependent reproductive toxicity in animals). Clove should complement—not replace—evidence-based fertility approaches; consult a healthcare provider or fertility specialist before use for reproductive concerns, especially with conditions like PCOS, low sperm quality, or during attempts to conceive. Larger, well-designed human trials are essential to clarify its role, optimal dosing, and safety in fertility enhancement.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4, Source 5)

Menstrual Pain Relief

Clove, particularly its essential oil rich in eugenol (70–90%), has been traditionally used to alleviate menstrual pain (dysmenorrhea), with its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties providing a mechanistic basis for this application.

Eugenol exerts potent pain-relieving effects by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, especially COX-2, which reduces the synthesis of prostaglandins—lipid mediators that trigger uterine contractions, ischemia, and heightened pain sensitivity during menstruation. Preclinical studies in animal models (e.g., acetic acid-induced writhing and hot-plate tests) confirm eugenol’s dose-dependent antinociceptive activity, comparable to NSAIDs like ibuprofen in some assays, through prostaglandin suppression and modulation of pain pathways (e.g., TRPV1 desensitization and opioid-like effects).

The anti-inflammatory action further supports relief from menstrual discomfort. Eugenol and other clove compounds (e.g., β-caryophyllene) inhibit NF-κB signaling and pro-inflammatory cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β), reducing localized inflammation and swelling in uterine tissues. This helps mitigate the inflammatory cascade that exacerbates cramping and pelvic pain.

Clove oil also demonstrates smooth muscle relaxation in isolated uterine tissue preparations (e.g., rat and human myometrial strips), where eugenol reduces spontaneous contractions and inhibits oxytocin- or prostaglandin-induced spasms—potentially easing the hypercontractility responsible for primary dysmenorrhea.

Human clinical evidence is emerging but limited to small-scale studies. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial in women with endometriosis-associated dysmenorrhea found that oral clove tablets (400 mg daily for 12 weeks) significantly reduced pain severity (visual analog scale scores dropped markedly, p < 0.001) compared to placebo, alongside improvements in pelvic pain and dyspareunia. Another small RCT combining clove with other herbs showed reduced premenstrual syndrome symptoms, including cramping. These align with traditional practices in Ayurveda and folk medicine, where clove tea or oil is used for menstrual relief.

While these findings support clove as a promising natural adjunct for managing mild to moderate menstrual pain—through prostaglandin inhibition, inflammation reduction, and uterine relaxation—large-scale, high-quality randomized controlled trials are still needed to confirm efficacy, optimal dosing, and long-term safety specifically for primary dysmenorrhea. Clove is not a substitute for standard treatments like NSAIDs, hormonal therapies, or medical evaluation for severe or secondary dysmenorrhea. Moderate dietary use (e.g., clove tea made with 1–2 crushed buds steeped in hot water, or small amounts in food) appears low-risk for most women and may offer supportive benefits, but high-dose supplements or undiluted oil require caution due to potential irritation or interactions. Consult a healthcare provider before using clove for menstrual pain, especially if symptoms are severe, persistent, or accompanied by heavy bleeding or other concerns.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4)

In summary, examining clove’s possible role in reproductive health brings forward a lesser-known yet interesting dimension of this familiar spice. While cloves are best known for their culinary value, traditional use and early research suggest they may support aspects such as libido, hormonal balance, and menstrual comfort. At the same time, it is important to maintain a measured view, recognising that current evidence is still limited and that more focused research is needed to draw clear conclusions.

As with any natural ingredient used for wellness, cloves should be consumed thoughtfully and in moderation, particularly when considering reproductive health. Their emerging potential in this area reflects the broader versatility of cloves and highlights how natural compounds can interact with the body in complex ways. Used responsibly, cloves continue to demonstrate how everyday spices may contribute to overall health beyond the kitchen.

Supplementation

The use of clove, scientifically known as Syzygium aromaticum, for supplementation purposes should be approached thoughtfully, keeping in mind both its strong bioactive properties and the possibility of side effects. When used in everyday cooking, cloves are generally considered safe and well tolerated by most people. However, their medicinal use, especially in concentrated forms such as clove oil, extracts, or capsules, calls for greater caution.

Cloves contain potent compounds, particularly eugenol, which are responsible for many of their health-supporting effects but can also be problematic when consumed in excessive amounts. Concentrated intake may increase the risk of irritation, toxicity, or interactions with medications, especially in sensitive individuals. For this reason, clove supplementation should never be assumed to be risk-free simply because it is natural.

Anyone considering cloves beyond culinary use, particularly for therapeutic purposes, should do so with moderation and ideally under the guidance of a qualified healthcare professional. This balanced approach helps ensure that the benefits of cloves are enjoyed safely, without unintended adverse effects.

Recommended Dosage

Clove supplementation lacks a universally standardized dosage due to variations in preparation (e.g., whole/ground buds, extracts, essential oil), eugenol content, individual tolerance, and limited large-scale clinical data establishing therapeutic amounts for specific benefits.

For general dietary use, whole or ground cloves are considered safe in typical culinary amounts (e.g., 1–2 whole cloves or ¼–½ teaspoon ground daily, roughly 1–2 g), aligning with the World Health Organization’s acceptable daily intake of eugenol at 2.5 mg/kg body weight (approximately 150–175 mg eugenol for a 60–70 kg adult, equivalent to modest clove amounts since eugenol comprises ~70–90% of the oil but less in whole spice).

Clinical studies on clove extracts or supplements often use standardized preparations at moderate doses:

Polyphenol-rich clove bud extracts (e.g., Clovinol) at 250 mg daily for 8–12 weeks showed benefits in metabolic syndrome, antioxidant status, and glucose control in small randomized trials, with good tolerability.
Other human interventions have employed 250–500 mg clove powder or extract daily for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, or metabolic effects, typically over 4–12 weeks.

For clove essential oil, which is highly concentrated in eugenol, internal use is generally not recommended without professional supervision due to toxicity risks (e.g., liver damage or seizures at high doses like 10–30 mL). Topical applications for dental pain involve 1–2 drops diluted in a carrier oil or applied sparingly; mouthwashes/gels often contain 1–5% clove oil. The FDA recognizes clove oil as GRAS at low food levels (<0.06% in some contexts), but concentrated ingestion should be avoided.

Always follow product-specific manufacturer guidelines, as potency varies. Start with lower amounts (e.g., 120–300 mg powder or equivalent) and monitor tolerance, especially if using for targeted benefits like digestion, inflammation, or oral health. Clove is generally safe in food amounts but can interact with anticoagulants, lower blood sugar additively with diabetes medications, or cause irritation/allergies. High doses or prolonged use of concentrated forms may lead to side effects like gastrointestinal upset or, rarely, hepatotoxicity.

Clove supplementation is not a substitute for medical treatment; consult a healthcare provider before starting, particularly with conditions (e.g., bleeding disorders, diabetes, pregnancy), medications, or before surgery (discontinue 1–2 weeks prior due to potential antiplatelet effects). Evidence for most benefits remains preliminary, and larger trials are needed to refine safe, effective dosing.

Side Effects of Clove

Clove and especially its essential oil are generally safe in small culinary or diluted topical amounts, but overuse or high doses can cause adverse effects due to the high concentration of eugenol (70–90% of the oil) and other potent compounds.

Common side effects from excessive use include:

Skin or mucosal irritation, burning sensation, or contact dermatitis when undiluted clove oil is applied topically or used in high concentrations on gums/mouth tissues.
Allergic reactions, ranging from mild rash to rare severe hypersensitivity (e.g., anaphylaxis in sensitized individuals).
Local tissue damage, such as chemical burns, gum inflammation, or oral mucous membrane erosion from prolonged or concentrated contact with clove oil.
Gastrointestinal discomfort, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or heartburn, particularly with higher oral intake of ground cloves or oil.

Eugenol toxicity becomes a concern at high concentrations or large ingested amounts. Symptoms of eugenol overdose or acute toxicity can include sore throat, difficulty swallowing or breathing, dizziness, headache, rapid heartbeat, convulsions, and in severe cases, liver damage (hepatotoxicity) or central nervous system depression. Case reports document hepatotoxicity and metabolic acidosis in children or adults after accidental ingestion of large volumes of clove oil (e.g., several milliliters), with some requiring hospitalization.

Clove oil is highly concentrated and should never be ingested undiluted or in large doses. Internal use is generally limited to very small, diluted amounts (e.g., 1 drop in a teaspoon of carrier oil or honey, or as directed in food-grade preparations), and even then, only under guidance. The FDA classifies clove oil as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) at low food-use levels but warns against therapeutic internal dosing without supervision due to toxicity risks.

To minimize risks:

Always dilute clove oil (e.g., 1–2% in a carrier like coconut or olive oil) for any topical/oral application.
Use only food-grade, high-quality clove products for ingestion.
Avoid prolonged or frequent high-dose use, especially in children, pregnant/breastfeeding women, or individuals with liver conditions, bleeding disorders, or allergies to eugenol/Allium-related plants.
Discontinue use and seek medical attention if irritation, breathing issues, or unusual symptoms occur.

While clove offers evidence-based benefits in moderation (e.g., for oral pain relief or antioxidant support), high doses do not enhance efficacy and can cause harm. Stick to culinary amounts (e.g., 1–2 g ground cloves daily) or follow product-specific guidelines for supplements/extracts. Consult a healthcare provider before using clove therapeutically, particularly if you have pre-existing conditions, take medications (e.g., anticoagulants, antidiabetics), or plan surgery, as eugenol can interact with certain drugs or increase bleeding risk.

Safety Considerations

Clove is generally well-tolerated in culinary amounts, but caution is advised with higher doses, concentrated forms (e.g., essential oil, extracts, or supplements), or prolonged use due to eugenol’s potency and potential interactions.

Individuals with bleeding disorders or those taking anticoagulant/antiplatelet medications (e.g., warfarin, heparin, aspirin, clopidogrel) should exercise particular care. Eugenol and other clove compounds exhibit mild antiplatelet effects by inhibiting thromboxane A2 production and platelet aggregation, which may prolong bleeding time or increase bleeding risk in susceptible people. Case reports and pharmacokinetic studies have documented enhanced anticoagulant effects (e.g., elevated INR) when clove supplements are combined with warfarin. Discontinue clove supplements at least 1–2 weeks before elective surgery to minimize perioperative bleeding complications, as recommended by surgical guidelines.

Pregnant or breastfeeding women should consult a healthcare provider before using clove supplements or high-dose preparations. While clove in food amounts is considered safe based on traditional use and general GRAS status, there is insufficient high-quality human data on the safety of concentrated eugenol or clove oil during pregnancy or lactation. Animal studies show mixed results at high doses (e.g., potential developmental effects or uterine stimulation in some models), and rare human reports of adverse outcomes exist with excessive ingestion.

People with liver disease or a history of seizures should approach clove supplements with caution. Eugenol, when taken in large amounts (e.g., several milliliters of clove oil), has been associated with hepatotoxicity (elevated liver enzymes, metabolic acidosis) and rare cases of central nervous system effects, including seizures in susceptible individuals or overdose scenarios. Preclinical data indicate dose-dependent liver impact, with protective effects at low doses but potential toxicity at high levels.

To minimize risks:

Start with low doses (e.g., 120–300 mg standardized extract or ¼–½ teaspoon ground cloves daily) and monitor for tolerance, gradually increasing only if well-tolerated.
Use only food-grade, high-quality products for ingestion; dilute essential oil properly for any topical/oral use.
Be mindful of potential additive effects with medications that affect blood sugar (e.g., antidiabetics), blood pressure, or liver metabolism (e.g., certain statins or anticonvulsants).
Avoid undiluted clove oil ingestion or excessive topical application to prevent mucosal irritation, allergic reactions, or chemical burns.

While clove offers evidence-based benefits in moderation (e.g., antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, oral health support), it is not risk-free at higher doses. Always consult a healthcare provider before adding clove supplements, especially with pre-existing conditions, medications, pregnancy/breastfeeding, or planned surgery. Dietary use in cooking or teas remains the lowest-risk way to incorporate clove’s potential advantages into daily wellness.

(Reference: Source 1, Source 2, Source 3, Source 4)

Conclusion

In conclusion, clove is a spice with a long and influential history, valued for both its culinary appeal and its traditional wellness applications. Native to the Maluku Islands in Indonesia, clove cultivation gradually spread to other tropical regions where warm, humid conditions support its growth. Its chemical profile, shaped largely by eugenol, explains many of its well-recognised analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. These qualities have made cloves especially important in traditional practices, including oral care and general health support.

Beyond pain relief, cloves have been associated with antioxidant activity, metabolic support, liver protection, and emerging interest in their broader cellular benefits. In the area of reproductive health, evidence is still limited, but traditional use and early findings suggest possible roles in supporting libido and easing menstrual discomfort. These potential benefits, however, should be viewed as supportive rather than therapeutic.

Caution remains essential when using cloves beyond culinary amounts. While they are generally safe as a cooking spice, concentrated forms such as oils or extracts require careful dosing to avoid adverse effects. Ultimately, Syzygium aromaticum represents more than a flavouring agent. Its journey from ancient trade routes to modern kitchens and wellness discussions highlights the enduring relationship between nature and human health. When used thoughtfully and with awareness, cloves continue to offer value rooted in both tradition and evolving scientific understanding.

Disclaimer: This content is for general information only and does not replace professional medical advice. Asmidev is not responsible for any diagnosis made based on this content, nor does it endorse or take responsibility for external websites or products mentioned. Always consult a qualified healthcare professional for health-related concerns. This article was created through a human–AI collaboration. The ideas and direction come from the author’s research, with AI used only to assist in organizing information and refining expression, while cross-checking against established scientific literature.